But how does cannabis actually work? And, what is THC, which everyone talks about so much?
This guide covers the basics for beginners and professionals alike.
What is THC, really? By far, tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) is the most controversial component of medical and adult-use cannabis. The molecule is a natural chemical constituent of some cannabis plant varieties, and it is considered the primary culprit behind the famous cannabis “high”.
Although the compound has many medicinal and therapeutic uses, it earned worldwide notoriety for its mind-altering nature.
THC is one of over 100 specialized chemical compounds found in cannabis called cannabinoids. Cannabinoids belong to a class of molecules thus far thought to be unique to the cannabis plant, yet scientists are currently investigating whether or not other plants can naturally produce similar chemicals.
Thanks to genetic engineering, for example, researchers have recently bred a variety of yeast that can successfully produce THC.
Humankind has been using THC for millennia.
For millennia, THC-producing cannabis plants have been bred and cultivated for their medicinal, spiritual, and pleasurable properties. Yet, even to this day, the mysterious chemical provokes debate among medical professionals, policy makers, and consumers alike.
While the structure of the compound was first described in the 1930s, the psychotropic chemical was not fully isolated from the cannabis plant until 1964, by a team of Israeli scientists led by Dr. Raphael Mechoulam.
Still, although the compound that causes the classic cannabis “high” wasn’t fully articulated until the 20th century, the psychedelic chemical has inspired its fair share of myth and legend over the ages.
In ancient Hindu texts, for example, psychoactive cannabis was one of the five sacred plants listed in the Atharva Veda, which is a text detailing practical methods of living and spiritual practice.
The ancient Indian text dates back to 1200-1000 BC. It is reported that a “guardian lives in the bhang [cannabis] leaf”, and the herb was described as a “joy-giver”, “liberator”, and as a “source of happiness.”
Yet, while psychotropic cannabis was used as a means to connect to God in some cultures, in others the herb developed a more sinister reputation. Throughout the 19th and 20th centuries, Westerners attributed THC-laden cannabis products with hallucinations and a loss of self-control.
To some extent, these differing views of THC-containing cannabis continue to this day. Since the 1990s, however, another discourse has emerged. Psychotropic cannabis has been used for centuries as a medicine, and now modern science has added ample evidence to support these claims.
In the new era of 21st-century medicine, THC and other cannabinoid compounds are shaking the bedrock of conventional pharmaceutical medicine.
Those little, sugar-like crystals are the sticky trichomes that house special chemicals including cannabinoids and terpenes.
Thus far, THC is naturally found only in the cannabis plant. Although, not all cannabis varieties produce THC. Most notably, plants classified as Cannabis Sativa and Cannabis Indica produce the psychoactive molecule.
Although, some cultivars may produce hardly any THC at all, depending on how they have been bred. Cannabis Sativa plants classified as hemp, for example, will produce less than 0.3 percent of the psychoactive compound.
THC is most commonly stored in resin glands that sit on the surface of cannabis leaves and flowers. These resin glands are called trichomes, and they are most abundant on seedless female flowers. Although, it is important to note that only trace amounts of THC are actually found on raw cannabis plants.
Instead, THC can be found as tetrahydrocannabinolic acid (THCA, THC acid). In its raw form, THCA is non-intoxicating. In order for the acidic molecule to produce an intoxicating effect, the compound needs to be exposed to heat or left to decompose over time.
The conversion of THCA to THC happens during a process called decarboxylation. Decarboxylation may sound like a complex matter, but in reality, only one thing is needed to trigger decarboxylation: heat.
When cannabis products are smoked, vaporized, baked, or cooked, raw THC acid transforms into decarboxylated THC. Decarboxylated THC is the famous molecule that causes changes in cognition. Raw THC acid is not. For this reason, eating fresh cannabis leaves and flowers does not cause mind-altering effects.
Raw cannabis typically contains very little THC. Instead you get non-psychoactive THCA, which is converted into THC.
For decades, THC has stolen all of the attention while THCA was considered a measly inactive molecule. Fortunately, scientists have wised up in recent years. Emerging research has discovered that THCA boasts potential anti-inflammatory, anti-nausea, and neuroprotective effects. For some medical cannabis patients, THCA may be more beneficial than THC in some cases.
From what preclinical research says thus far, decarboxylated THC features similar activity. Although, due to its potency, decarboxylated THC may sometimes worsen nausea or inflammation when consumed in high dosages.
For consumers, however, the most notable difference between decarboxylated THC and THCA is their cognitive effect. While THCA has been described as calm and alerting, THC produces a notable effect on cognition. More information on the cognitive effects of decarboxylated THC are described below.
Cultivators are now breeding cannabis not just for THC, but other cannabinoids such as CBD, THCV, and more.
In many ways, the cannabis plant is a natural chemical factory. The medicinal herb can produce over 500 different chemical constituents, of which it would be generous to say that dozens have been adequately studied. Some of these molecules, like chlorophyll and lignin, are made internally by the plant for structural and metabolic purposes.
Other compounds, like cannabinoids, serve much more fascinating and perplexing purposes. While the exact reason cannabis plants make THC or other cannabinoids is technically unknown, the plant is expected to make the secondary metabolites as a means of self-protection.
Many growers, for example, are familiar with the fact that increasing levels of ultraviolet blue (UV-B) light in the grow room appears to increase THCA production. In this sense, the cannabinoid may act as a form of sunscreen for the plant. THC and THCA also boast antimicrobial and insecticidal properties, protecting the plant from infection and infestation.
Getting the most out of cannabis usually requires a bit of guidance and patience.
THC works by tapping into a large cellular communication network known as the endocannabinoid system (ECS). The ECS consists of communication molecules called endocannabinoids, as well as cell receptors and enzyme proteins. Together, these components allow for the transportation of chemical messages within the nervous system, immune system, and endocrine (hormonal) system.
Together, the nervous, endocrine, and immune systems make up three primary homeostatic networks in the body. In science, the term homeostasis refers to the state of balance or equilibrium within a system. In this case, the system in question is the human body. All three of these major networks use the endocannabinoid system to regulate themselves.
Named after the cannabis plant, the endocannabinoid system is the primary target of cannabis medicines. Decarboxylated THC mimics endocannabinoid communication molecules in the human body, causing a cascade of physiological effects. Since the endocannabinoid system is wide-reaching, THC can have an effect on a multitude of bodily functions at once. Some of which include:
It is because of THC’s interaction with the endocannabinoid system that the molecule is able to have an effect on many different physical and mental ailments. To break down the overall effects of the cannabinoid even further, here’s how THC affects the nervous, immune, and endocrine systems individually.
Recommended for You: "How Many Marijuana Strains Are There?"
While there are many nuances to the nervous system, its main function is sensory awareness and response. The nervous system, for example, allows you to feel the prick of a needle and respond in an appropriate fashion.
If the needle is going to hurt you, it is the nervous system that tells you to run. If the needle is part of a routine procedure, the nervous system is also responsible for allowing you to cope with the experience while it is happening.
Similarly, the nervous system allows you to make conscious movements, process visual and auditory stimuli, recognize scents and fragrances, and experience thoughts and emotions. The nervous system uses endocannabinoid signalling molecules as neurotransmitters, enabling nerve cells to send messages from one cell to another.
THC can act upon nerve cells in both the central and peripheral nervous system, meaning that THC can influence messages sent between the brain and spinal cord as well as the rest of the body. This allows THC to influence things like pain sensation, muscle tension, mental processes, and emotion.
The immune system is responsible for protecting the body from harm, injury, and infection. Like nerve cells, immune cells also use endocannabinoid molecules to communicate with one another. As the research thus far suggests, immune cells appear to use endocannabinoids to control inflammatory response, as well as to assist in destroying cells that may have become damaged or cancerous.
As such, it comes as no surprise that THC can influence these same processes. THC mimics the effects of endocannabinoids in the human body. In the immune system, this means that THC can alter the body’s inflammatory response, sometimes suppress immune function, and perhaps even influence the way in which the body responds to cancerous cells.
The endocrine system is the technical term for the hormonal system, which regulates the homeostasis of basic functions like growth, metabolism, and reproduction. The endocrine system and the nervous system work closely together, so the two systems are sometimes referred to as the neuroendocrine system.
Early evidence suggests that the neuroendocrine system uses endocannabinoid molecules to modulate the production and release of certain hormones, giving the endocannabinoid system a regulatory role.
Given that endocannabinoids can modulate hormone production, one can expect that THC may also influence the production and regulation of hormones as well. Indeed, early evidence suggests that THC does interact with the endocrine system and the cannabinoid may influence the release of hormones that control hunger, reproduction, and possibly more.
Although, it’s important to note that researchers are still trying to uncover exactly how cannabis compounds interact with the endocrine system and to what end.
A lot of people think CBD is medical, and THC is for fun. This is an unfortunate misconception.
As mentioned above, THC is just one of over 100 different cannabinoid molecules produced by the cannabis plant. Due to its noticeable psychotropic effects, cannabis plants that contain THC are among the most popular in both medical and recreational markets.
THC has a close sibling, however. That sibling is cannabidiol (CBD). Unlike THC, CBD does not cause a noticeable intoxicating effect. In fact, the cannabinoid may even lessen the intoxicating potential of THC.
In the world of medical cannabis, THC and CBD are often combined using different ratios to achieve specific therapeutic effects. If a patient is struggling with the side effects of THC, for example, then CBD is sometimes added to a patient’s treatment regimen in order to achieve symptom relief with minimal disruptions to a patient’s life.
THC and CBD also work differently in the body. While THC works by directly mimicking endocannabinoid molecules, CBD functions primarily by preventing endocannabinoid molecules from being broken down by enzymes. Thus, CBD acts as a booster for endocannabinoid molecules while THC is more akin to a replacement.
THC has a surprising amount of medical benefits.
Perhaps thanks to intensive marketing campaigns and greater social acceptability, CBD is often wrongly considered to be the only medicinal compound in the cannabis plants. Research published as recently as 2019, however, suggests that the majority of individuals who consume THC report greater relief and greater symptom management than those simply taking CBD products. Of course, this isn’t to say that CBD therapies are not valuable to many patients.
Although cannabis that contains THC has been used as medicine for thousands of years, decades of legal restrictions for scientific research has prevented the cannabinoid from being properly studied.
The topics of cannabinoid medicines and the endocannabinoid system are among the fastest-growing areas of scientific research today. Yet, much of the information currently published on the topic comes from low-quality trials, population-based studies, animal research, and simple laboratory experiments.
Without a multitude of high-quality clinical trials, it is difficult to discuss the benefits of cannabis and THC with a high degree of certainty. And yet, based on the available evidence so far, THC appears to hold therapeutic value for a wide range of conditions. Some of the health benefits of the compound may include:
There is also emerging but early evidence that THC has anti-cancer properties, as well as neuroprotective properties amongst patients with neurodegenerative diseases like Parkinson’s Disease. For the time being, however, much of the therapeutic value of THC is limited to anecdotal and observational evidence from medical cannabis dispensaries and other access points.
For some the cannabis high is an unwanted side effect, for others it's the main show.
Even though cannabis is still illegal in much of the world, it remains one of the most popular illicit substances. The popularity of the plant likely has to do with both its potency as a natural medicine, as well as the enjoyable “high” that it inspires.
Although it is considered impossible to fatally overdose on THC, the cannabinoid can cause a few side effects. Some of these side effects, like changes in consciousness, can be quite enjoyable. Others, like anxiety, can be very unpleasant.
Positive THC side effects include:
Negative THC side effects:
It is important to note that the side effects of THC are often dose-dependent. Those new to cannabis or those who have taken an extra-large dose of THC are more likely to experience negative side effects than those who microdose, combine CBD and THC, or consume THC in moderation.
While low to moderate doses of THC may ease symptoms like pain, anxiety, or nausea for some patients, higher doses may actually worsen these symptoms, regardless of whether or not the patient is a regular cannabis consumer.
In some severe cases, THC may worsen psychosis or inspire hallucinations. For this reason, it is recommended that people with a known risk for these conditions avoid THC, consult a medical professional before consuming, or consume THC-containing cannabis products with extreme mindfulness and in controlled settings.
It should also be noted that in addition to dosage level, terpene profiles can impact the experience of a THC high. For instance, some terpene profiles might make you feel sleepy, while others might make you feel energized, creative, or even anxious.
For more on terpenes, check out: “The Mind-Blowing World of Cannabis Terpenes.”
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The immediate impact was palpable, with major multi-state operators (MSO’s) like Aurora Cannabis, Canopy Growth, and Tilray Brands experiencing substantial stock price increases. These gains underscored the industry's keen interest in the potential reclassification.
For decades, marijuana has languished in the Schedule I category alongside substances like heroin and LSD, despite growing scientific support, state-level legalization, and public acceptance. Remarkably, it ranked higher than far more dangerous drugs such as fentanyl, cocaine, and methamphetamine.
Now, the DEA faces a decision: whether to relocate marijuana to Schedule III, a category shared with substances like ketamine and anabolic steroids, which are considered to have a lower potential for physical or psychological dependence. It's important to note that this recommendation would not equate to full descheduling of marijuana.
In terms of descheduling vs. rescheduling, the National Organization for the Reform of Marijuana Laws (NORML) takes a clear and unwavering stance in favor of descheduling cannabis from the Controlled Substances Act (CSA) rather than opting for rescheduling.
With more than two-thirds of U.S. states and territories now regulating marijuana for medical or adult use, NORML asserts that the existing structure of the CSA cannot accommodate the existence of these state-level programs.
NORML points out that cannabis does not meet the criteria for any of the CSA schedules, and likening it to substances not included in the CSA, such as dietary supplements, vitamins, alcohol, and tobacco, suggests that descheduling is the appropriate path forward.
This approach would grant both federal and state governments varying degrees of regulatory authority over cannabis, allowing states to continue or prohibit cannabis production and sales as they see fit. NORML argues that rescheduling is intellectually dishonest and would not necessarily facilitate clinical research, as existing onerous regulations specific to cannabis would remain in place. The organization, along with many in the industry from across the country, emphasize the need for cannabis to be descheduled to resolve the state-federal conflict and promote sensible, state-regulated marijuana policies.
While marijuana enjoys legal status for medical use in 39 states and recreational use in 23 states, the complex federal-state legal dichotomy adds layers of complexity to the cannabis industry's operations. Even with a potential rescheduling, cultivation, production, and sales would still technically violate federal law.
As the debate around marijuana rescheduling heats up in Congress and with the DEA being goaded into making a decision soon, concerns arise within the cannabis reform community and industry stakeholders.
A major worry is that moving marijuana from Schedule I to Schedule II could lead to the legalization of marijuana pharmaceuticals, potentially necessitating the removal of all non-FDA-approved cannabis products from the market. Such a move could severely disrupt the flourishing cannabis industry, which serves both medical and recreational users in nearly half of the United States.
Adding to the complexity, a group of 14 Republican congressional lawmakers has recently issued a letter to the DEA, urging the agency to disregard the HHS recommendation and maintain marijuana's Schedule I classification. They argue for decisions rooted in scientific evidence rather than political considerations or changes in state laws.
Which makes total sense because the GOP is renowned for their unwavering belief and decisions rooted in science and scientific evidence.
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Now, let's break down the key aspects of this complex issue:
I. The Legal Authority and Scheduling. The Controlled Substances Act of 1970 dictates the scheduling of drugs in the United States based on criteria like medical value, safety for medical use, and potential for abuse. However, it's essential to recognize that the CSA doesn't inherently authorize state-sanctioned cannabis operations. The legal basis for their operation comes from memos issued by the U.S. Justice Department, known as the Cole and Ogden Memos, which establish guidelines for state-approved cannabis operations. These memos represent executive actions, not dependent on marijuana's schedule, and would remain intact even if marijuana were to be rescheduled.
II. Federal Attitude Towards Scheduling. Currently classified as a Schedule I substance at the federal level, marijuana is considered to have no medical utility and a high potential for abuse. Despite this classification, federal authorities have shown deference to state laws, allowing legal cannabis programs to operate in states where they're authorized. Rescheduling marijuana to Schedule II would signify a shift in federal perception, acknowledging its potential medical utility. However, this would not necessarily lead to the closure of state-legal cannabis programs, as the deference to state laws would likely continue.
III. The Role of Presidential Prerogative. The legal basis for the continued operation of cannabis enterprises lies in the Justice Department's memos. Rescheduling marijuana wouldn't fundamentally alter the essence or authority of these memos. In fact, it could further validate them by applying them to a substance considered less dangerous under a lower schedule.
IV. Public Opinion and Disincentives. Public opinion, with over 80% of Americans supporting medical marijuana, plays a vital role in shaping policy decisions. This support, along with evolving views on recreational use, acts as a significant disincentive for any president to shut down state-legal cannabis programs, given the potential economic and political repercussions.
V. Implications of Rescheduling. Rescheduling would primarily impact medical marijuana research and signal federal commitment to aligning policies with state-level reforms. It would ease research barriers and improve access to cannabis for scientific investigation. However, it would not significantly affect the legal status of state-level marijuana programs, which would continue to operate under state law.
VI. Differentiating State Legal Products from FDA-Approved Pharmaceuticals. Products in state-legal cannabis markets would differ significantly from FDA-approved pharmaceuticals, even with rescheduling. While pharmaceutical research into isolated cannabinoids may expand, traditional cannabis products would remain distinct, serving diverse consumer needs.
The potential DEA rescheduling of cannabis holds promise for transforming the industry but is unlikely to result in the widespread closure of state-legal dispensaries. It signifies a shift in perception, eases research barriers, and may lead to expanded consumer access and financial stability for the industry.
However, it's important to remain attentive to evolving federal and state regulations to grasp the full extent of these potential transformations as well the interests and lobbyists working behind the scenes to advance or stifle these initiatives - i.e. big pharma, MSO’s, etc.
In the ongoing debate over marijuana scheduling, various terms like "rescheduling," "descheduling," and "unscheduling" have specific meanings and implications, which can be complex. Each approach has its pros and cons, and the choice depends on political, social, and economic factors, as well as the goals of policymakers and advocates.
While there is growing support for descheduling, the specific path forward remains a subject of debate and negotiation. And no matter which way this goes it will likely raise more problems than it solves in the near term.
Stay tuned.
In the world of cannabis, however, the word strain caught on in the 1980s and there’s been little looking back since. The word is embedded in popular culture, and most cannabis dispensaries and enthusiasts still use the term to describe different varieties of cannabis. With new waves of cannabis legalization, however, more technical and scientific ways of describing the plant are slowly becoming more popular.
Finding the right cannabis cultivars for you is an important part of the process.Photo by Add Weed on Unsplash
Old habits die hard. In popular culture, cannabis cultivars are generally divided into three distinct categories: indica, sativa, and hybrid. These categories, however, may actually mean very little in terms of describing the overall effects of the plant. Over the past decade, research has shown that a strain’s indica, sativa, or hybrid status has little influence on the overall experienced effect of any given strain.
Rather, the effects of a particular strain are determined by the combination of chemical compounds that the flower produces. Whether or not you feel sleepy, energized, or intoxicated by a particular cannabis strain depends on the chemotype of the plant, not the plant’s indica or sativa status.
A chemotype is like a chemical fingerprint. Different families of plants will produce different bouquets of aromatic and psychoactive compounds. The compounds that make up these bouquets partially determine what mental and physical effects the strain will have upon smoking or ingesting the herb.
This is especially the case for different combinations of terpenes the plant produces. Terpenes are responsible for the distinct smell of various cannabis cultivars, and they also have an impact on the overall effect or experience with inhaled cannabis.
For example, some strains are more likely to produce compounds that make you sleepy, while others do not. Further, some strains will produce more THC than others, making them potentially more intoxicating.
Whether you're using the cannabis plant medically or for other reasons, these distinction can help you further dial in your cannabis regimen.
What the indica/sativa distinction is good for, however, is giving a general idea about the phenotypic characteristics of the cultivar. A phenotype is a set of expressed physical characteristics that are genetically inherited—just as some people inherit blue eyes from their parents, some cannabis plants inherit broad leaves. Here’s a quick summary of the difference between cannabis indica and sativa plants:
In popular culture, sativa strains are thought to be more energizing than sleepy. However, as mentioned above, the effects that a given plant produces depends very little on its status as an indica or sativa. Instead, the word sativa tells us more about the physical characteristics of the plant. A sativa plant is more likely to produce narrow leaves, grow tall, and features a long flowering time.
Most strains cultivated today are technically hybrids. Nevertheless, some plants express strong sativa phenotypes. These plants tend to produce thin leaves and can grow to be fairly tall. Three of the most popular sativa cultivars are:
In popular culture, indica strains are thought to be more sleepy than energizing. However, this is somewhat untrue. A strain will be more sleepy and hypnotic based on the presence of sedative aromatic molecules, like the musky terpene myrcene. A strain does not have to be an indica to produce myrcene and not all indicas feature high levels of sedative terpenes.
Instead, the word indica more accurately describes the physical characteristics of some cannabis plants. Cannabis indica plants tend to be short, stocky, and feature broad leaves. These plants are better adapted to cold climates.
Just as some plants strongly express sativa phenotypes, others express strong indica phenotypes. These plants will feature broad leaves, often have a shorter flowering time, and are more likely to be short and stocky. Three of the most popular indica cultivars are:
In popular culture, hybrid strains are crosses between known indica and sativa parents. But, from a scientific perspective, most modern cannabis strains are hybrids. In essence, new strains are created by cross-breeding different cultivars together, a process called hybridization.
The majority of contemporary cannabis strains are hybrids. Therefore, it’s difficult to accurately list cultivars that fall under the “hybrid” category. But, from a popular culture perspective, a few of the most famous hybrid strains include:
Some people prefer cannabis cultivated indoors. Others prefer sun-grown cannabis. And plenty of folks enjoy both.Photo by Next Green Wave on Unsplash
Hundreds. Thousands. Getting an exact answer about how many cannabis strains there are is quite difficult. Why? New cannabis hybrids are bred all the time. Massive strain databases, like Leafly, have over 3,600 unique cannabis strains listed on their website. The vast majority of these varieties, however, are minor cannabis strains that are not well-known to the general public. In total, the general estimate from cannabis experts suggests that there are over 700 different unique strains; the rest may be derivative from these 700.
That’s a pretty big gap, right? Here’s why there’s such a discrepancy. Cannabis breeds a lot like people do (well, no not that way.) Usually, a cannabis plant will be either male or female. As such, when two plants are bred together, the resulting seeds will inherit genetic information from both the male (father plant) and the female (mother plant)—just like people do.
So, it’s possible to have incredible genetic diversity amongst different cannabis plants. It also makes it very easy to pick plants that have preferred characteristics and breed them together to make a new plant that contains the best of both worlds. Once cannabis breeders stabilize a unique mix, it becomes a new cultivar or strain. That “strain” is then named, marketed, and sold as a unique cannabis variety—like Blue Dream or Cat Piss.
Or, for example, like the Blue Cookies strain. The hybrid is the offspring of two popular parents: Girl Scout Cookies and Blueberry. After potentially several generations of stabilization, Blue Cookies can enter the market as its own unique strain. So, if you were to buy Blue Cookies seeds, you would get seeds from a Blue Cookies plant crossed with another Blue Cookies plant. If you were to get a clone, it would be a clone clipped from a Blue Cookies plant. Some strains, like Blue Cookies, are popular enough to garner mainstream attention. Others are more small-scale local legends cultivated by backyard and basement growers.
Cannabis, however, isn’t the only plant that is bred this way. Humans have been hybridizing, selecting, and stabilizing crops for millennia. While there are potentially 3,600 plus known cannabis cultivars, there are also 3,000 different registered tulip varieties and over 10,000 different varieties of wine grapes. And we make new ones all the time, to withstand pests, to improve flavor, to tolerate drought, et cetera.
For more, check out our complete collection of cannabis strain reviews.
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